The Presentation of Women in To Kill a Mockingbird Research Paper Example

The Presentation of Women in To Kill a Mockingbird Paper Women were very much idealised in the southern society. They were regarded as pure and delicate. They were said to be fragile and unfit to deal with real life situations. In theory, this is meant as a high status, but women found it very offensive and extremely restrictive. This made them become very frustrated, and in general, they became depressed. The whole southern community had feelings of frustration, but they women suffered more. Southern women suffered simply because they were women, and because they could convey and express such feelings. In To Kill a Mockingbird a recurrent theme is Scouts hatred of the gracious, ladylike, well-mannered role which her aunt tries to inflict upon her. Scout rejects her feminine ways and name of Jean -Louise, and prefers her male nickname, Scout. The fact that the author of To Kill a Mockingbird, Harper Lee, is female is an advantage to the presentation of women in the novel because she would know how it feels to be a woman in those times, and she would know how they are being treated. Harper Lee was a young writer in South America, she was born in 1926 in Monroeville, Alabama which was a small South American town, which in a way resembles Maycomb, the town in which To Kill a Mockingbird is set, although in an interview, Harper Lee maintained that To Kill a Mockingbird was intended to portray not her own childhood home but a rather non specific southern town. People are people, wherever you put them, she declared. The novel is also said to be firmly based on Harper Lees background. We will write a custom essay sample on The Presentation of Women in To Kill a Mockingbird specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Presentation of Women in To Kill a Mockingbird specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Presentation of Women in To Kill a Mockingbird specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer In this essay, I am going to discuss the female characters in the novel, the womens position within the Maycomb society and the womens influence on the novel as a whole. Jean Louise Finch, also known as, Scout is a very important female character in the novel. She competes with Jem and their coloured cook Calpurnia for the attention of her father Atticus. She has a very loving relationship with Atticus, and she gives Jem the status of her hero, although they do not always get on as well as expected. Scout is observant and in ways, very confident. She doesnt always understand everything that she is told, or sees happening, although she demonstrates an ability to absorb things, as she is a very intelligent, young girl. She is a non-judgemental child who is able to have lots of fun and is always happiest in her overalls, instead of typical girly dresses. She has the social identity of a tomboy in the prim and proper world of Maycomb. Scout is a very thoughtful girl, she worries about the goodness and evil of mankind and she always acts with the best intentions at heart, although she sometimes goes about things the wrong way. As the novel progresses, Scout grows up a lot, although it is only in the space of 3 years, she matures a great deal. At the beginning of the novel, Scout is an innocent, good-hearted 5 year old, who has had hardly any experience with the big, wide world and by the end of the book, though she is still only a young child, her perspective on life progresses from the innocent child, to a near grown up. She has her first contact with evil in the form of racism when her father Atticus is called a Nigger Lover. She reacts badly to this incident and takes it to heart. Atticus brought up Scout with an element of sympathy and understanding and this indicates that whatever evil she comes face to face with she will retain her conscience without becoming cynical. Scouts mother died when Scout was only 2 years old, so her father, Atticus, who is a big role model in her life, brought her up. However, the two main female role models in her life are Calpurnia, the coloured cook who lives with the Finch family and Miss Maudie, who is like a best friend to the children. Scout grows up with Calpurnia, and although they do not really get on at first, by the end of the novel Scout looks up to Cal. They form more of a relationship where Scout enjoys spending time with her. Miss Maudie is the other main female role model for Scout. She is an old, yet very good friend of the family. She shares Atticus passion for justice and agrees in the way he brought up Scout and Jem. Miss Maudie is like a mother figure to Scout, who in a way replaces Scouts real mother. Out of all the adults in Maycomb, Miss Maudie is like the childrens best friend, apart from Atticus of course. Miss Maudie Atkinson, a widow in her late forties, is a very good friend of the Finch family. She is well loved by the whole of the family, especially the children. She is always out working in her garden, and is a source of company and information to the children. In a way, I think that Scout and Jem both admire her. She is a very positive character in the novel and a big role model. She is very courageous and has a good, fun sense of humour. She has a non racist attitude, which Scout, especially admires. You can tell that she isnt racist as she stands by Atticus through the Tom Robinson case. I think that Miss Maudie gets along with everyone or at least tries too. She has an amount of respect for all living things. Scout has a very high opinion of Miss Maudie, as said before; she is one of Scouts main role models. She has a lot of wisdom about her, which helps Scout a lot through the novel. She is a mother-like figure to the children, she does not talk down to them, she has respect for them, which is why they respect and value her. She a constant reassuring and sensible model for the children when Atticus is not around. When her house burns down, she shows a tremendous amount of strength and resilience. Miss Maudie and the children often have very in-depth conversations together about what Arthur Radley was like when he grew up, rigid religion and of Atticus talent. Scout and Miss Maudie are in a way, very alike. They have the same views on life, which is why I think they get along so well, even though Scout is only young. The both disapprove of racism and prejudice. Neither of them really have the desire to gossip. Scout has a very high opinion of Miss Maudie, which I think influences the reader to have the same type of opinion of her. As the novel goes on, you get to know Scout as a person, and in a way, learn to love the people she love one being Miss Maudie Atkinson. Calpurnia is the black cook and housekeeper that lives in the Finch family household. She is quite a strong character in the novel. She experiences better conditions and responsibilities, than other African Americans of her time, due to Atticus belief. She is very able to negotiate between the two very different, separate worlds of Maycomb the black and the white. She teaches Scout and Jem most of the same lessons which they are taught by Atticus and Miss Maudie. She is quite a strict lady, and as she is considered as one of the family, she is allowed to freely scold and lecture the children. At first, the children, especially Scout do not like this, but as the novel progresses I think they realise that she is only doing her best for them. Cal and Scout bond quite a lot through the novel, they sit and talk, and Calpurnia teaches Scout about keeping respect for people, and taking time to understand others. I think that this helps Scout to build quite a strong relationship with Cal. Having such a close relationship with Calpurnia even helps Scout see that being a girl isnt so bad after all, and despite being coloured and just the Finchs cook and housekeeper, she becomes a type of mother to Scout in many ways. Miss Henry Lafayette Dubose is one of the more nasty characters in To Kill a Mockingbird. She is said to be one of the meanest women to ever have lived in the Maycomb County. Se is a very old, ill and argumentative woman. She is racist and prejudiced which is a dominating reason of why the children dislike her, as neither of them have been brought up to be like that. The children tend to avoid her, as she is a viscous woman, and it upsets them, the way she calls Atticus a Nigger Lover because of his Tom Robinson case and having Calpurnia living with them. One day, when Mrs Dubose calls Atticus a Nigger Lover it particularly gets to the children, and inspires Jem to cut off Mrs Duboses precious Camellias. As a punishment for this Jem has to go to read to Mrs Dubose everyday. Jem hates the idea but Scout offers to go with him (this is an aspect of Scout and Jems close relationship). The children are scared to go there everyday, but Atticus tells them to maintain their politeness with her, as she is just an ill, lonely lady. They also learn more courage as they are going to visit everyday. Having Mrs Henry Lafayette Dubose as a character in the novel, indicates that there are both good and bad characters in the book. Harper Lee has realistically created complex personalities. Alexandra referred to in the book as Aunt Alexandra is Atticus sister. She is a very strong-willed, proud woman, and is very devoted to her family and her expectations of them. She is like the perfect southern woman. She is a very traditional woman, and personality trait often leads her to clash with Scout. She has strict views on how children should be brought up, and girls should be typical girls, so she disapproves of Scouts tomboyish ways. She tries to enforce these views on Scout, which drives Scout away from her, as Scout is happy the way she is and the way she dresses. Alexandra is very much concerned with bringing up Atticus children properly, this shows when she comes to help look after the children during the Tom Robinson trials. She is quite a racist woman, which does not help when she is staying with Atticus and the children, as Calpurnia is the cook. She has very different views to Calpurnia on bringing up the children and the roles of southern women. This makes it quite hard for them to live in the same household and causes them a lot of tension, as they tend to clash, as they are very different. Scout and Aunt Alexandra build a better relationship towards the end of the novel, they realise they arent so different after all, and rather learn to get along. They learn to live with each other and accept each others rules and views. I think that there are many strong female characters in To Kill a Mockingbird. One of the strongest being Scout. She changes a lot through the novel, we get to know her really well, and notice her changes from a small child into more of a person. The role of southern women is a big aspect of the story. It is shown in many ways, from the way Calpurnia is, and the way Aunt Alexandra is.

Genocide in Cambodia essays

Genocide in Cambodia essays Few events have ever conjured as much terror and hatred as the genocidal killings in Cambodia by the Khmer Rouge; more than 2 million people were shot, strangled, beheaded, starved or tortured to death in the 20th century. The United States, when monitoring human rights violations such as genocide, should play essential roles in abolishing these law-breaking habits, establish a clear understanding of repercussions, and provide social and finical aid for the rebuilding of a distressed nation. Yet, throughout history the nature of imperialism has created great dynasties and destroyed many of them, from the Romans to the Nazis to the Khmer Rouge; one way to dominate the world is by destroying cultures or civilization to have more control, this is known as genocide. Genocide is the systematic killing of all the people from a national, ethnic, or religious group, or an attempt to do this for power. Thus this is one of the reasons for the horrific killings by the Khmer Rouge, which will be discussed more in depth throughout this paper along with gruesome details of their actions, life before and after the regime, connections between this human rights violation and others that took and take place in Cambodia, my view point along with others and the repercussions the Khmer Rouge endured by the United States and the United Nations in the aftermath of this event. The population of Cambodia is 11,339,562 (1998 estimate). Population growth per year is estimated at 2.5 percent, one of the highest rates in Asia. The rate of infant mortality is also high. The population density is 63 persons per sq km (162 per sq mi), with the densest concentrations on the heavily cultivated central plain. The mountainous regions of the country, where malaria is widespread, are thinly populated, as are the poorly watered northern provinces. During the late 1970s, under the brutal rule of the Khmer Rouge, all of Cambodias towns were depopulated, and reside...

Argumentative Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Argumentative - Essay Example In absence of this, a reader will stop reading. For instance, an argumentative writing with no coherence demeans reading since readers cannot follow any organized logical flow of ideas. Such writings have disintegrated parts that the reader find hard to connect to derive any meaning or understanding of the reading. In addition, lack of a complete and sensible story discourages readers from engaging with an argumentative writing. Argumentative essays should be clear, complete, and relevant to the main point. For instance, an argumentative writing that fails to address both sides of an argument is incomplete, biased, and insufficient to the reader’s needs. All argumentative essays should be factual and grammatically correct to appease the reader and convince them to support the ideas presented in the text. An argumentative writing that presents incorrect information or uses an informal language discourages reading. Ideally, convincing texts must depict originality, creativity, and simplicity in presenting the central idea. Complex and unoriginal texts also discourage reading. For instance, argumentative writing that only presents what the reader knows is not

Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 2

Case Study Example This person has been found to be an average performer in the company. If this person gets promoted, then this would mark his last promotion before retirement. The last candidate is Quang Yeh, who has been a brilliant student in her class and is associated for almost three years with the company. This person has been found to be very ambitious and is a target oriented person who goes to any extent to meet her set goals. She is also a sincere and efficient employee and makes a point to attain her set goals at any cost. Roy and Quang were preferred by many employees as the most eligible person to get promoted and were found to have personal ties with many powerful people within the organization. On the other hand, Lael was very closely attached with Liz’s daughter, this was again creating a mental block for Lael to take a decision. Lael could not understand which person she should recommend for promotion. She was very confused and could not identify the right person who should be promoted and would be the ideal person for a higher position in the organization. Liz, Roy and Quang are three candidates who are qualifying for the higher managerial position in the organization. All the candidates are being backed by higher authorities in the organization. In support of Roy, one of the senor manager’s of the organization told Lael that â€Å"Roy has been with us a long time. He has done many good things for the company, sacrificing not only himself but also his family. I really hope that you can see your way to promoting him. It would be a favor to me that I wouldn’t forget.† (OLS 263: Ethical Decisions in Leadership Mid-Term Case Study: â€Å"An Ethical Dilemma†, n.d.). This statement shows that this manager wants Roy to get promoted and is trying to influence Lael so that Lael recommends Roy for being promoted. On the other hand, a top management personnel

Backlash Against the Feminist Movement Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Backlash Against the Feminist Movement - Essay Example The backlash, according to Trimble's analysis of the phenomenon (cited in Feminism and I am not a feminist, 2008, p. 12), "was born out of the rise of neo-liberalism and neo-conservatism in the 1980s and 1990s." At that point in time, the popular belief was that the movement had successfully accomplished its primary objectives and that Canadian women, as a consequence, had attained a status of absolute equality with males. Women had attained the basic rights for which they had agitated and fought. As the movement had been initiated by the absence of these rights and its goal had been the attainment of these rights, their accomplishment was interpreted as a successful conclusion to the movement. As such, the backlash refers, not to the right of women to equality or their earlier struggle for the attainment of equality, but to the current, "third wave" of feminism (p. 12). The backlash, in other words, is directed against feminism as a socio-political and ideological movement. Canadian women have not, historically, embraced feminism. According to Trimble, O'Neil and Faludi (cited in Feminism and I am not a feminist, 2008, pp. ... This is not simply expressive of the backlash against feminism but of popular rejection of radicalism, coupled with the certitude of gender equality. Quite simply stated, gender equality is an unquestionable principle in Canada and the equality of the sexes is neither contested nor debated. The implication here is that Canadian women do not feel that they have to embrace feminism in order to attain equality and do not embrace it because they are averse to radicalism. From a personal perspective, feminism is not something which I identify with. While I most definitely understand the roots of the movement and acknowledge that were it not for the earlier generations of feminists, I would not be enjoying the freedoms which I take for granted today, I do not understand its present-day purposes or motives. Men and women are equal and this is something which we, as women, no longer need to argue or to prove. The notion that we must constantly prove and argue our equality does not reflect positively on us as a gender and, subjectively speaking, is somewhat demeaning. It seems to say that we are not persuaded of our own equality and therefore, need to constantly remind ourselves and others of it. It is, thus, that I see myself as a human rights advocate but not a feminist. I do not question the equality of the sexes and do not assume that we are not equal. Instead, I question equality between people and whether, in fact, all people, irrespective of colour , class, religion or ethnic heritage, are treated and regarded as equal. As I believe they should, and must, be, I support human rights but not feminism. Royal Commission on the Status of Women The Royal Commission on the Status of Women was

Financial Risk Management in Mauritius Banking Sector

Financial Risk Management in Mauritius Banking Sector During the past 10 years, there have been great changes in the Mauritian banking sector and this is a continuing process that will not stop here. This is mostly because of fast innovations in the financial markets and the internationalization of the financial flows. Other factors like technological development and deregulation have both triggered competitive pressures and also provided new opportunities among banks. But these opportunities are also subject to complex risks that challenge traditional approaches to banking risk management. These factors have influenced the financial world on the international level and the Mauritian banking sector has not been left unaffected. The growth of international financial markets banks have been exposed to a wider access to funds. As a result of which banks have been developing new products, services and techniques. The receipt of deposits and granting of loans, being the traditional banking practice, is today only one part of a banks activities. These new instruments have also drawn interest to areas where financial risks were earlier thought to be relatively unimportant. Hence banks are now exposed to a greater variety of risks and their ability to measure, monitor and steer risks accordingly is becoming a decisive parameter for their survival. The aim of this project is to provide an overview of the management process of financial risks in our Mauritian banking sector as risk is the fundamental element that influences the financial behavior. Banking Risks Banks are faced with a wide array of risks in their course of their operations, as illustrated in the figure below. In general, risks are categorised into three different parts: Financial Risks, Operational Risks and Business Risks. Figure 1: Categories of Banking Risks Banking Risks Financial RisksOperational Risks Business Risks Interest Rate Risk 1) Business Strategy Risk1) Legal Risk. Foreign Exchange Risk 2) Internal System and Operational Risk 2) Policy Risk. Credit Risk 3) Technology Risk 3) Systemic Liquidity Risk 4) Management and Fraud (Country) Risk. Source: Annual Report on Banking Supervision 2000 BOM Financial risk concern the effective management and control of the finances of an organisation and the effects of external factors such as availability of credit, foreign exchange rates, interest rate movement and liquidity risk. For this project only the financial side of Risk Management is going to be considered. Focus will be on the four main types of risks which are: Interest rate Risk is the risk borne by an interest-bearing asset, for example in this case a loan, due to variation in interest rates. Foreign Exchange Risk is a form of risk that crop up due to the change in price of one currency against another. Credit Risk is the risk of loss due to a debtors non-payment of a loan. Liquidity risk is the risk to earnings arising from a banks inability to meet its obligations when they come due. Operational risks are related to a banks overall organisation and functioning of internal systems, including computer-related and other technologies, conformity with bank policies and procedures and measures against mismanagement and fraud. Although these types of risks are important, emphasis will not be put on them in this project. Business risks are associated with a banks business environment, including the macroeconomic and policy concerns, legal and regulatory factors and the overall financial sector infrastructure and payment system. Outline of Chapters Chapter 2:Literature Review This chapter will focus on previous studies and surveys carried out with respect to financial risks encountered by banking institutions around the world. It will also focus on the different techniques used to manage these types of risks. Chapter 3:Overview of the Mauritian Banking Sector This chapter aims at giving an overview of the current Mauritian banking sector and also information pertaining to risk management. Chapter 4:Research Methodology In this chapter an outline of the methods used to collect data and carry out the research is given. The way in which the interview questions have been set and how the data has been analysed using different techniques. Chapter 5: Presentation of findings and Analysis This chapter which is the main one aims at presenting and explaining the answers received from the different interviews and data from the annual reports of banks, in a structured way. Chapter 6: Recommendations and Conclusion This last chapter consists of the suggestions regarding financial risk management for the Mauritian banking sector and also the answer to the main question. 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Defining Financial Risks Financial risks in the banking field are the probability that the result of an action or event could bring up unfavorable impacts. Such outcomes could either cause direct loss of earnings or capital or may result in limitations on banks capacity to meet its business objectives. Such constraints pose a risk as these could influence a banks capacity to perform its ongoing business or to take advantage of opportunities to advance its business Risks are frequently defined by the negative impacts on profitability of numerous separate sources of uncertainty. While the types and degree of risks of an organization may be exposed to depend upon a number of factors such as its size, complexity business activities, volume etc, it is believed that generally the banks face Credit, Market, Liquidity, Operational, Legal and Systemic risks etc. 2.2 Definition of Financial Risks as Per Basel II The role of risk management in banking has changed from the simple insurance of identified risks, to a discipline that concentrates on complex econometric and financial model of uncertainty. Financial risk management has been defined by the Basel Committee (2001) as a sequence of four processes: the identification of events into more or broad categories of market, credit, operational and ‘other risks and specific sub-categories; the assessment of risks using data and a risk model; the monitoring and reporting of the risk assessments on a timely basis; and the control of these risks by senior management. The first Basel Accord (1988) analysed only credit risks in the banking book; the Basel Amendment (1996) extended this to market risks in the trading book; and now the new Basel 2 Accord that will be adopted by all G10 and many other countries in 2007 refines credit risk assessments to become more sensitive and extends the calculation of risk capital to include operational risks. 2.3 Distinction between Risk Management and Risk Measurement? Risk measurement is a key part of the general risk management process, but its certainly just one of the parts. Other, similarly key parts include defining risks, setting policy risk limits and guidelines, and taking action when those limits are threatened of being breached. Risk management is as much about people, procedures, and communication, as it is about quantitative methods involved in risk measurement (Suren Markosov, 2001). Risk measurement, however, is important to the success of the risk management process. Part of the risk measurement task is to guarantee that the risk measures being used are suitable to the nature of the risks, and since these risks can be quite various in nature, so can the necessary choices of risk measures. 2.4 Why do Banks manage Risks? The analysis of risk management reported in Santomero (1995) gives us a lists of dozens contributions and at least four separate rationales considered for active risk management. These include managerial self-interest, the non-linearity of the tax structure, the costs of financial distress and the existence of capital market imperfections. Risk is a fundamental part of the banking business, it is not amazing that banks have been using risk management ever since there have been banks the industry could never have survived without it. The only modification is the degree of sophistication now necessary to reflect the new complex and fast moving environment (Laurence H Meyer, 2000). The Asian financial crisis of 1997 has shown us that ignoring necessary risk management can also add to economy-wide difficulties. The long period of extraordinary economic growth and prosperity in Asia had hidden weaknesses in risk management. Many Asian banks did not think about risk or conduct a cash flow analysis before giving way loans, but rather lent on the basis of their relationship with the borrower and the availability of guarantee despite the fact that the security was often hard to seize in the event of default. The result was that loans including loans by foreign banks grew faster than the capacity of the borrowers to repay. Risk management is clearly not free. In fact its expensive in both resources and in institutional disturbance. The cost of delaying or avoiding proper risk management can be extreme: failure of a bank and possibly failure of a banking system (Laurence H Meyer, 2000). 3.4 Determinants of Risks When banks are exposed to risk, this implies that they are vulnerable to financial distress and failure. Determinants of risk are thus causes of problem bank failure. The common causes of bank failure are: Management. Argenti (1984) attributed 17% of his A-scores to management style and composition. He attributed another 71% to accounting deficiencies, poor response to change, over-gearing, over trading and large projects; all of which hinge upon capabilities of management. Arguments that he put forward was that management is the primary and single most important cause of financial distress. Asset quality Loan and advances comprise a substantial portion (50%-80%) of commercial banks total assets and they account for more than 70% of their income. This highlights the banks role as financial intermediary. â€Å"Asset quality is the most important determinant of bank risk exposure†. This was pointed out by Hefferman (2000), Gonzalex-Hermossilo (1999), and Hardy (1998). The asset quality of a bank is affected by various factors such as, over concentration, insider lending and political loans. Over-Expansion Banks that grow quickly tend to have unjustified risks and often find that their administrative and management information system cannot keep up with the rate of expansion. Too much liquidity by way of rapid deposit growth could also be a problem in that management may undertake riskier credit proposals and this will adversely affect the asset quality. Capitalization Capital adequacy ratio is a function of adjusted risk assets. A bank can either maintain this ratio by increasing its capital or reducing of adjusted risk assets. The prime objective of this control is to protect depositors. However Blum (1998) found that with the incentives for asset substitution, capital adequacy requirements may actually increase risk. This was found in the case of J.P Morgan and Deutsche Bank. In Mauritius the BOM has adopted a capital adequacy ratio of 10% to match international standards. Fraud Fraud is one of the key determinants of risk. However it is closely related with the management competence that some fraudulent activities have passed off as incompetence. The BCI and Barings Bank are good examples. 2.5 HOW ARE RISKS MANAGED? As pointed out by Anthony M. Santomero (1997) there need to be essential procedures that must be put in place to carry out satisfactory risk management? In essence, what techniques are employed to both limit and manage the different types of risk, and how are they implemented in each area of risk control? The management of the bank relies on a series of steps to put into operation a risk management system. These can be seen as containing the following four parts: 2.5.1 Standards and reports, 2.5.2 Position limits or rules, 2.5.3 Investment guidelines or strategies, 2.5.4 Incentive contracts and compensation. In general, these tools are used to measure exposure, define procedures to manage these exposures, limit individual positions to acceptable levels, and encourage decision makers to manage risk in a manner that is consistent with the firms goals and objectives (Oldfield and Santomero, 1995). To see how each of these four parts of basic risk management techniques achieves these ends, we elaborate on each part of the process below. 2.5.1 Standards and Reports The first of these risk management techniques involves two unlike conceptual activities, i.e., standard setting and financial reporting (Santomero and Babbel, 1996). They are listed jointly because they are the sine qua non of any risk system. Underwriting standards, risk categorizations, and standards of review are all traditional tools of risk management and control. Consistent evaluation and rating of exposures of various types are essential to understand the risks in the portfolio, and the degree to which these risks must be mitigated or absorbed (Hodgson, 1999). The consistency of financial reporting is the next ingredient. Obviously outside audits, regulatory reports, and rating agency evaluations are necessary for investors to measure asset quality and firm level risk. These reports have long been standardized, for better or worse. However, the need here goes beyond public reports and audited statements to the need for management information on asset quality and risk posture. Such internal reports need similar standardization and much more frequent reporting intervals, with daily or weekly reports substituting for the quarterly GAAP periodicity. 2.5.2 Position Limits and Rules The use of position limits, and minimum standards for participation can be categorized as a second method for internal control of active management. According to Santomero (1995) risk taking is restricted to only those assets or counterparties that pass some prespecified quality standard. Then, even for those investments that are eligible, limits are compulsory to cover exposures to counterparties, credits, and overall position concentrations relative to various types of risks. While such limits are costly to set up and control, their imposition restricts the risk that can be assumed by any one individual, and therefore by the organization as a whole. In general, each person who can commit capital will have a well-defined limit. This applies to traders, lenders, and portfolio managers. Summary reports show limits as well as current exposure by business unit on a periodic basis. In big organizations with thousands of positions maintained, precise and well-timed reporting is difficult, but even more necessary (Lopez, 2003). 2.5.3 Investment Guidelines and Strategies Investment guidelines and recommended positions for the instant future are the third technique commonly in use. Cummins et al (1998) provide that under this means of management control, strategies are shaped in terms of concentrations and commitments to particular areas of the market, the extent of desired asset-liability mismatching or exposure, and the need to hedge against systematic risk of a particular type. The limits described above show the way to passive risk avoidance and diversification, because managers generally work within position limits and prescribed rules. Beyond this, guidelines offer firm level advice as to the appropriate level of active management, given the state of the market and the willingness of senior management to absorb the risks implied by the combined portfolio. Such guidelines lead to firm level hedging and asset-liability matching. In addition, securitization and even derivative activity are rapidly growing techniques of position management open to participants looking to reduce their exposure to be in line with managements guidelines. 2.5.4 Incentive Schemes Banks can enter incentive compatible contracts with line managers and make compensation linked to the risks assumed by these individuals, and then the need for complex and costly controls is decreased. However, such incentive contracts require precise position valuation and proper internal control systems. Such tools which include position posting, risk analysis, the allocation of costs, and setting of required returns to various parts of the organization are not irrelevant. Despite the complexity, well designed systems align the goals of managers with other stakeholders in a most desirable way. In fact, most financial debacles can be traced to the absence of incentive compatibility, as the cases of the deposit insurance and so clearly illustrate. The association of managerial compensation to book earnings can bring about acquisition of investments with negative convexity, duration mismatch risk, liquidity risk and credit risk, whose book profits are higher than their expected return (Cummins et al., 1998). STRATEGIES USED BY BANKS TO MANAGE RISKS INTEREST RATE RISK All banks face interest rate risk. This type of risks occurs when long term mortgages are funded by short term deposits. Interest rate risk is like the â€Å"blood pressure for banks and is vital for their survival.†(Ron Feldman and Jason Schmidt) Furthermore, according to the Basel Committee (2001) â€Å"interest rate risk is the exposure of a banks financial condition to adverse movements in interest rates. Accepting this risk is a normal part of banking and can be an important source of profitability and shareholder value.† According to the Bank of Jamaica each banking institution needs to establish explicit and prudent interest rate risk limits, and ensure that the level of interest rate risk exposure does not exceed these limits. Interest rate risk limits need to be set within an institutions overall risk profile, which reflects factors such as its capital adequacy, liquidity, credit quality, investment risk and foreign exchange risk. Interest rate positions should be managed within an institutions ability to offset such positions if necessary. Gap analysis, duration analysis and stimulation models are interest rate risk measurement techniques used by the Bank of Jamaica (2005). Each technique provides a different perspective on interest rate risk, has distinct strengths and weaknesses, and is more effective when used in combination with another. Gap Analysis A simple gap analysis measures the difference between the amount of interest-earning assets and interest-bearing liabilities (both on- and off-balance sheet) that reprice in a particular time period. Duration Analysis Duration is the time-weighted average maturity of the present value of the cash flows from assets, liabilities and off-balance sheet items. It measures the relative sensitivity of the value of these instruments to changing interest rates (the average term to repricing), and therefore reflects how changes in interest rates will affect the institutions economic value, that is, the present value of equity. In this context, the maturity of an investment is used to provide an indication of interest rate risk. The longer the term to maturity of an investment, the greater the chance of interest rates movements and, hence, unfavourable price changes. Simulation Models Simulation models are an important complement to gap and duration analysis. Simulation models analyse interest rate risk in a dynamic context. They evaluate interest rate risk arising from both current and future business and provide a way to evaluate the effects of strategies to increase earnings or reduce interest rate risk. Simulation models are also useful tools for strategic planning; they allow a banking institution to effectively integrate risk management and control into the planning process. FOREIGN EXCHANGE RISK It is the current risk to earnings and capital arising from negative movements in currency exchange rates. It refers to the impact of adverse movement in currency exchange rates on the value of open foreign currency position. The use of hedging techniques by the Bank of Jamaica is one means of managing and controlling foreign exchange risk. Many different financial instruments can be used for hedging purposes, the most commonly used, being derivative instruments. Examples include forward foreign exchange contracts, foreign currency futures contracts, foreign currency options, and foreign currency swaps. Generally, few banks will need to use the full range of hedging techniques or instruments. Each bank should consider which ones are necessary for the nature and extent of its foreign exchange activities, the skills and experience of trading staff and management, and the capacity of foreign exchange rate risk reporting and control systems. CREDIT RISK Credit risk is the oldest and important risk which banks exposure and important of credit risk and credit risk management are increasing with time because of some reasons like economic crises and stagnation, company bankruptcies, infraction of rules in company accounting and audits (Dr.Adem Anbar, 2006). For the Norinchukin Bank in Japan (2006), transactions involving credit risk are one of the most important and strategic sources of earnings. In addition to assessments of the risks present in individual loans and other assets, the bank conducts comprehensive risk management from the perspective of its overall credit risk portfolio. In this way, the bank works to generate earnings proportionate with the level of credit risk it takes. While frequently strengthening its credit analysis capabilities, the bank conducts expert checks on the standing of borrowers, taking due account of their characteristics as cooperatives, private corporations, public entities, or non-residents. To conduct credit analysis on private corporations and public corporations, the bank has established the Credit Risk Management Division, which is separate from the Corporate Business Management Strategy Division, to prepare credit analyses by industry, drawing fully on the expertise the bank has historically acquired. To achieve greater accuracy in assessments, each senior credit analyst in charge of a certain industry assesses each client and business through comparisons with competitors in the same business, making use of industry research capabilities. Credit risk is measured for loans, guarantees, foreign exchange and securities, such as corporate bonds, as well as for swaps and other off-balance transactions. Measurement of risk volumes are conducted according to types of transactions partners, including domestic and overseas corporations and financial institutions. Based on estimates of the total credit extended, the bank uses information related to credit risk— such as rating transition ratios that measure the probability of rating changes and are computed based on background history and future business prospects, default ratios by rating, recovery ratios in the event of default and correlations among the creditworthiness of corporations and other entities to conduct tens of thousands of simulated scenarios, under various assumptions regarding defaults and rating changes for its customers and their products—to determine the distribution of potential losses. For the estimated potential losses, the bank calculates two risk volumes: the â€Å"expected loss† that corresponds to the loss that can be expected on average over the next year and the â€Å"probable maximum loss,† which is defined as losses that can be expected under the worst case scenario. This enables the bank to check expected profitability against risk and determine the risk capital to be allocated for each business category. LIQUIDITY RISK Liquidity risk is the risk that could occur if an institution does not have enough funds accessible to meet all its cash outflow obligations as they become due. Liquidity risk management ensures that funds will be available at all times to honour the institutions obligations (Bank of Mauritius). A liquidity risk management involves not only analyzing banks on and off-balance sheet positions to forecast future cash flows but also how the funding condition would be met (Bank of Pakistan). The latter involves identifying the funding market the bank has access, understanding the nature of those markets, evaluating banks current and future use of the market and monitor signs of confidence erosion. Banks use a variety of ratios to quantify liquidity. These ratios can also be used to create limits for liquidity management. However, such ratios would be meaningless unless used regularly and interpreted taking into account qualitative factors. Ratios should always be used in conjunction with more qualitative information about borrowing capacity, such as the likelihood of increased requests for early withdrawals, decreases in credit lines, decreases in transaction size, or shortening of term funds available to the bank. To the extent that any asset-liability management decisions are based on financial ratios, a banks asset-liability managers understand how a ratio is constructed, the range of alternative information that can be placed in the numerator or denominator, and the scope of conclusions that can be drawn from ratios. Because ratio components as calculated by banks are sometimes inconsistent, ratio-based comparisons of institutions or even comparisons of periods at a single institution can be misleading. Cash Flow Ratios and Limits. One of the most serious sources of liquidity risk comes from a banks failure to roll over a maturing liability. Cash flow ratios and limits attempt to measure and control the volume of liabilities maturing during a specified period of time. Liability Concentration Ratios and Limits. Liability concentration ratios and limits help to prevent a bank from relying on too few providers or funding sources. Limits are usually expressed as either a percentage of liquid assets or an absolute amount. Sometimes they are more indirectly expressed as a percentage of deposits, purchased funds, or total liabilities. Other Balance Sheet Ratios. Total loans/total deposits, total loans/total equity capital, borrowed funds/total assets etc are examples of common ratios used by financial institutions to monitor current and potential funding levels. EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE ON FINANCIAL RISK MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES USED BY BANKS CREDIT RISK MANAGEMENT Credit operations are traditionally the main source of income as well as risks for banks. I am going to elaborate on the result and analysis of market central bank meeting participants carried out by Ramon Moreno in 2005. It was found that 40% of the respondents to his survey cited credit to household as an important source of credit risk. According to Moreno, a distinct increase in credit to the household sector has altered risk exposures and he also found that in some countries there is significant credit risks on the banking book associated with asset price fluctuation for example lending for residential real estate accounts for around 25% of total loans in Hong Kong and Korea, around 19% in Hungary, Poland and Israel, but lower in Colombia and Mexico. Another study carried out by Santomero in 1997 found that banks usually use a credit rating procedure to evaluate investment opportunities in order for credit decisions to be made in a consistent manner and to limit credit risk exposure. By using such a procedure banks were able to monitor the quality of its loan portfolio at any time. It was found that the credit quality report signals changes in expected loan losses, if the system is meaningful. Also many banks are starting to develop concentration reports, indicating industry composition of the loan portfolio. Moody had developed a system of 34 industry groups that may be used to report concentrations. Reports such an industry grouping to illustrate the kind of concentration reports that are emerging as stand in the banking industry. Moreover a credit risk survey study was done in the Turkish Banking by Dr Adem ANBAR, where he found that there is main quantitative credit risk measurer. There are expected loss (EL), unexpected loss (UL) and credit value at risk (CVAR). Although these credit risk measures are used for measuring credit risk of one asset, particularly they are used for measuring portfolio credit risk. Only 35% of the bank used these measures. According to Dr Anbar, 30% of the banks said they measured credit risk using a portfolio credit risk model and software developed mostly by them. Furthermore 95% of the bank used internal credit rating system and a credit scoring model in credit risk analysis. This technique was used to determine credit limits, to determine problematic credit and credit risk measurement. According to the study there are 3 approaches in Basel II for credit measurement. These are Standardised Approach (SA), Foundation Internal Ratings Based Approach (FIRBA), and Advanced Internal Rating Based Approach (AIRBA). It was found that 60% of the banks used the first method and 20% the FIRBA and 20% the AIRBA. Dr Anbar found that in general the tools which are used by Turkish banks are collateral, credit limits and diversification but they dont use methods like loan selling, securitization, credit insurance for transferring credit risk. One reason for that was that these types of methods havent been developed in Turkish sector yet. INTEREST RATE RISK MANAGEMENT The tradition has been for the banking industry to diverge somewhat from other parts of the financial sectors in the treatment of interest rate risk. According to Santomero (1997) institutions that do not have active trading businesses, value-at-risk has become the standard approach. Many firms use this model but in some cases it is still in an implementation process. According to his analysis, commercial banks tend not to use market value reports and guidelines but rather, their approach relies on cash flow and bank values. This system has been traditionally been known as the GAP reporting system. This system has been supplemented with a duration analysis. (Hempel, Simonson and Coleman, 1994) Most banks, however have attempted to move beyond this gap methodology, they have concluded that the gap and duration reports are static and do not fit well with the dynamic nature of the banking market. Furthermore, according to the survey, many banks are using balance sheet simulation models to find the effect of interest rate variation on reported earnings overtime. This system requires relatively informed repricing schedules as well as estimates of prepayments and cash flows. The simulation system being completed, reports the resultant derivations in earnings associated with the rate scenarios considered. Officials then make use of cash, futures and swaps to reduce this risk. 2.7.3 LIQUIDITY RISK MANAGEMENT The liquidity risk that does present a real challenge is the need for funding when and if a sudden crisis arises. Standard reports on liquid assets and open lines of credit, which are germane to the first type of li

The Wisconsin Graduation Test - A Good Idea :: essays papers

The Wisconsin Graduation Test - A Good Idea What is a test? The Webster’s New American Dictionary defines a test as â€Å"a critical examination or evaluation†. The World Book 2000 Encyclopedia defines testing as â€Å"an attempt to measure a person’s knowledge, intelligence, or other characteristics in a systematic way†. The Wisconsin 2004 freshmen will have to take a graduation test in order to graduate their senior year. They have four chances to pass the graduation examination. This paper will explain how the current requirements for graduating compare to the graduation standardized test. Included are the obstacles that are involved with implementing the test, group and individual opinions concerning the graduation test, and a recent survey of people involved with the test. The graduation requirements at most high schools are similar to the graduation test standards in many content areas. To graduate, a student needs to complete four credits of English, three credits of social studies, two credits of mathematics, and two credits of science. (Misky) The four credits of English include instruction in written and oral communication, grammar and usage of the English language, and literature. (Misky) This is similar to the test, which measures reading, literature, writing, language, media and technology, and research and inquiry. (Wisconsin) The three credits of Social Studies cover instruction in state and local government. (Misky) The test includes geography, history, politics, economics, and behavioral sciences. (Wisconsin) The two credits of math provide instruction in the properties, processes, and symbols of arithmetic, and elements of algebra, geometry, and statistics. (Misky) The test contains mathematical processes, number operations and relations hips, measurement, geometry, statistics and probability, and algebraic relationships. (Wisconsin) The two credits of science incorporate Physical science and Life science. (Misky) The test provides science connections, nature of science, science inquiry, Physical science, Earth and Space science, Life and Environmental science, science applications, and science in personal and social perspectives. (Wisconsin) In most cases the categories are equivalent with each other. The categories that fall short will just have to be propelled or altered to fit the test. The decision to have a graduation test or not met with a great deal of resistance. One of the largest problems was the parents’ perspective on the test. The parents didn’t want their kids to take the test because of the high risk of failure. Another problem group was the legislators.

The Host Chapter 22: Cracked

Jeb put his hands behind his head and looked up at the dark ceiling, his face thoughtful. His chatty mood had not passed. â€Å"I've wondered a lot what it's like-getting caught, you know. Saw it happen more than once, come close a few times myself. What would it be like, I wondered. Would it hurt, having something put in your head? I've seen it done, you know.† My eyes widened in surprise, but he wasn't looking at me. â€Å"Seems like you all use some kind of anesthetic, but that's just a guess. Nobody was screaming in agony or anything, though, so it couldn't be too torturous.† I wrinkled my nose. Torture. No, that was the humans' specialty. â€Å"Those stories you were telling the kid were real interesting.† I stiffened and he laughed lightly. â€Å"Yeah, I was listening. Eavesdropping, I'll admit it. I'm not sorry-it was great stuff, and you won't talk to me the way you do with Jamie. I really got a kick out of those bats and the plants and spiders. Gives a man lots to think about. Always liked to read crazy, out-there stuff, science fiction and whatnot. Ate that stuff up. And the kid's like me-he's read all the books I've got, two, three times apiece. Must be a treat for him to get some new stories. Sure is for me. You're a good storyteller.† I kept my eyes down, but I felt myself softening, losing my guard a bit. Like anyone inside these emotional bodies, I was a sucker for flattery. â€Å"Everyone here thinks you hunted us out to turn us over to the Seekers.† The word sent a shock jolting through me. My jaw stiffened and my teeth cut my tongue. I tasted blood. â€Å"What other reason could there be?† he went on, oblivious to my reaction or ignoring it. â€Å"But they're just trapped in fixed notions, I think. I'm the only one with questions†¦ I mean, what kind of a plan was that, to wander off into the desert without any way to get back?† He chuckled. â€Å"Wandering-guess that's your specialty, eh, Wanda?† He leaned toward me and nudged me with one elbow. Wide with uncertainty, my eyes flickered to the floor, to his face, and back to the floor. He laughed again. â€Å"That trek was just a few steps shy of a successful suicide, in my opinion. Definitely not a Seeker's MO, if you know what I mean. I've tried to reason it out. Use logic, right? So, if you didn't have backup, which I've seen no sign of, and you had no way to get back, then you must've had a different goal. You haven't been real talkative since you got here, ‘cept with the kid just now, but I've listened to what you have said. Kind of seems to me like the reason you almost died out there was 'cause you were hell-bent on finding that kid and Jared.† I closed my eyes. â€Å"Only why would you care?† Jeb asked, expecting no answer, just musing. â€Å"So, this is how I see it: either you're a really good actress-like a super-Seeker, some new breed, sneakier than the first-with some kind of a plan I can't figure out, or you're not acting. The first seems like a pretty complicated explanation for your behavior, then and now, and I don't buy it. â€Å"But if you're not acting†¦Ã¢â‚¬  He paused for a moment. â€Å"Spent a lot of time watching your kind. I was always waiting for them to change, you know, when they didn't have to act like us anymore, because there was no one to act for. I kept on watching and waiting, but they just kept on actin' like humans. Staying with their bodies' families, going out for picnics in good weather, plantin' flowers and paintin' pictures and all the rest of it. I've been wondering if you all aren't turning sort of human. If we don't have some real influence, in the end.† He waited, giving me a chance to respond. I didn't. â€Å"Saw something a few years ago that stuck with me. Old man and woman, well, the bodies of an old man and an old woman. Been together so long that the skin on their fingers grew in ridges around their wedding rings. They were holding hands, and he kissed her on her cheek, and she blushed under all those wrinkles. Occurred to me that you have all the same feelings we have, because you're really us, not just hands in a puppet.† â€Å"Yes,† I whispered. â€Å"We have all the same feelings. Human feelings. Hope, and pain, and love.† â€Å"So, if you aren't acting†¦ well, then I'd swear to it that you loved them both. You do. Wanda, not just Mel's body.† I put my head down on my arms. The gesture was tantamount to an admission, but I didn't care. I couldn't hold it up anymore. â€Å"So that's you. But I wonder about my niece, too. What it was like for her, what it would be like for me. When they put somebody inside your head, are you just†¦ gone? Erased? Like being dead? Or is it like being asleep? Are you aware of the outside control? Is it aware of you? Are you trapped there, screaming inside?† I sat very still, trying to keep my face smooth. â€Å"Plainly, your memories and behaviors, all that is left behind. But your consciousness†¦ Seems like some people wouldn't go down without a fight. Hell, I know I would try to stay-never been one to take no for an answer, anyone will tell you that. I'm a fighter. All of us who are left are fighters. And, you know, I woulda pegged Mel for a fighter, too.† He didn't move his eyes from the ceiling, but I looked at the floor-stared at it, memorizing the patterns in the purple gray dust. â€Å"Yeah, I've wondered about that a lot.† I could feel his eyes on me now, though my head was still down. I didn't move, except to breathe slowly in and out. It took a great deal of effort to keep that slow rhythm smooth. I had to swallow; the blood was still flowing in my mouth. Why did we ever think he was crazy? Mel wondered. He sees everything. He's a genius. He's both. Well, maybe this means we don't have to keep quiet anymore. He knows. She was hopeful. She'd been very quiet lately, absent almost half the time. It wasn't as easy for her to concentrate when she was relatively happy. She'd won her big fight. She'd gotten us here. Her secrets were no longer in jeopardy; Jared and Jamie could never be betrayed by her memories. With the fight taken out of her, it was harder for her to find the will to speak, even to me. I could see how the idea of discovery-of having the other humans recognize her existence-invigorated her. Jeb knows, yes. Does that really change anything? She thought about the way the other humans looked at Jeb. Right. She sighed. But I think Jamie†¦ well, he doesn't know or guess, but I think he feels the truth. You might be right. I guess we'll see if that does him or us any good, in the end. Jeb could only manage to keep quiet for a few seconds, and then he was off again, interrupting us. â€Å"Pretty interesting stuff. Not as much bang! bang! as the movies I used to like. But still pretty interesting. I'd like to hear more about those spider thingies. I'm real curious†¦ real curious, for sure.† I took a deep breath and raised my head. â€Å"What do you want to know?† He smiled at me warmly, his eyes crinkling into half moons. â€Å"Three brains, right?† I nodded. â€Å"How many eyes?† â€Å"Twelve-one at each juncture of the leg and the body. We didn't have lids, just a lot of fibers-like steel wool eyelashes-to protect them.† He nodded, his eyes bright. â€Å"Were they furry, like tarantulas?† â€Å"No. Sort of†¦ armored-scaled, like a reptile or a fish.† I slouched against the wall, settling myself in for a long conversation. Jeb didn't disappoint on that count. I lost track of how many questions he asked me. He wanted details-the Spiders' looks, their behaviors, and how they'd handled Earth. He didn't flinch away from the invasion details; on the contrary, he almost seemed to enjoy that part more than the rest. His questions came fast on the heels of my answers, and his grins were frequent. When he was satisfied about the Spiders, hours later, he wanted to know more about the Flowers. â€Å"You didn't half explain that one,† he reminded me. So I told him about that most beautiful and placid of planets. Almost every time I stopped to breathe, he interrupted me with a new question. He liked to guess the answers before I could speak and didn't seem to mind getting them wrong in the least. â€Å"So did ya eat flies, like a Venus flytrap? I'll bet you did-or maybe something bigger, like a bird-like a pterodactyl!† â€Å"No, we used sunlight for food, like most plants here.† â€Å"Well, that's not as much fun as my idea.† Sometimes I found myself laughing with him. We were just moving on to the Dragons when Jamie showed up with dinner for three. â€Å"Hi, Wanderer,† he said, a little embarrassed. â€Å"Hi, Jamie,† I answered, a little shy, not sure if he would regret the closeness we'd shared. I was, after all, the bad guy. But he sat down right next to me, between me and Jeb, crossing his legs and setting the food tray in the middle of our little conclave. I was starving, and parched from all the talking. I took a bowl of soup and downed it in a few gulps. â€Å"Shoulda known you were just being polite in the mess hall today. Gotta speak up when you're hungry, Wanda. I'm no mind reader.† I didn't agree with that last part, but I was too busy chewing a mouthful of bread to answer. â€Å"Wanda?† Jamie asked. I nodded, letting him know that I didn't mind. â€Å"Kinda suits her, doncha think?† Jeb was so proud of himself, I was surprised he didn't pat himself on the back, just for effect. â€Å"Kinda, I guess,† Jamie said. â€Å"Were you guys talking about dragons?† â€Å"Yeah,† Jeb told him enthusiastically, â€Å"but not the lizardy kind. They're all made up of jelly. They can fly, though†¦ sort of. The air's thicker, sort of jelly, too. So it's almost like swimming. And they can breathe acid-that's about as good as fire, wouldn't you say?† I let Jeb fill Jamie in on the details while I ate more than my share of food and drained a water bottle. When my mouth was free, Jeb started in with the questions again. â€Å"Now, this acid†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Jamie didn't ask questions the way Jeb did, and I was more careful about what I said with him there. However, this time Jeb never asked anything that might lead to a touchy subject, whether by coincidence or design, so my caution wasn't necessary. The light slowly faded until the hallway was black. Then it was silver, a tiny, dim reflection from the moon that was just enough, as my eyes adjusted, to see the man and the boy beside me. Jamie edged closer to me as the night wore on. I didn't realize that I was combing my fingers through his hair as I talked until I noticed Jeb staring at my hand. I folded my arms across my body. Finally, Jeb yawned a huge yawn that had me and Jamie doing the same. â€Å"You tell a good story, Wanda,† Jeb said when we were all done stretching. â€Å"It's what I did†¦ before. I was a teacher, at the university in San Diego. I taught history.† â€Å"A teacher!† Jeb repeated, excited. â€Å"Well, ain't that amazin'? There's something we could use around here. Mag's girl Sharon does the teaching for the three kids, but there's a lot she can't help with. She's most comfortable with math and the like. History, now -â€Å" â€Å"I only taught our history,† I interrupted. Waiting for him to take a breath wasn't going to work, it seemed. â€Å"I wouldn't be much help as a teacher here. I don't have any training.† â€Å"Your history is better than nothing. Things we human folks ought to know, seeing as we live in a more populated universe than we were aware of.† â€Å"But I wasn't a real teacher,† I told him, desperate. Did he honestly think anyone wanted to hear my voice, let alone listen to my stories? â€Å"I was sort of an honorary professor, almost a guest lecturer. They only wanted me because†¦ well, because of the story that goes along with my name.† â€Å"That's the next one I was going to ask for,† Jeb said complacently. â€Å"We can talk about your teaching experience later. Now-why did they call you Wanderer? I've heard a bunch of odd ones, Dry Water, Fingers in the Sky, Falling Upward-all mixed in, of course, with the Pams and the Jims. I tell you, it's the kind of thing that can drive a man crazy with curiosity.† I waited till I was sure he was done to begin. â€Å"Well, the way it usually works is that a soul will try out a planet or two-two's the average-and then they'll settle in their favorite place. They just move to new hosts in the same species on the same planet when their body gets close to death. It's very disorienting moving from one kind of body to the next. Most souls really hate that. Some never move from the planet they are born on. Occasionally, someone has a hard time finding a good fit. They may try three planets. I met a soul once who'd been to five before he'd settled with the Bats. I liked it there-I suppose that's the closest I've ever come to choosing a planet. If it hadn't been for the blindness†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"How many planets have you lived on?† Jamie asked in a hushed voice. Somehow, while I'd been talking, his hand had found its way into mine. â€Å"This is my ninth,† I told him, squeezing his fingers gently. â€Å"Wow, nine!† he breathed. â€Å"That's why they wanted me to teach. Anybody can tell them our statistics, but I have personal experience from most of the planets we've†¦ taken.† I hesitated at that word, but it didn't seem to bother Jamie. â€Å"There are only three I've never been to-well, now four. They just opened a new world.† I expected Jeb to jump in with questions about the new world, or the ones I'd skipped, but he just played absently with the ends of his beard. â€Å"Why did you never stay anywhere?† Jamie asked. â€Å"I never found a place I liked enough to stay.† â€Å"What about Earth? Do you think you'll stay here?† I wanted to smile at his child's confidence-as if I were going to get the chance to ever move on to another host. As if I were going to get the chance to live out even another month in the one I had. â€Å"Earth is†¦ very interesting,† I murmured. â€Å"It's harder than any place I've been before.† â€Å"Harder than the place with the frozen air and the claw beasts?† he asked. â€Å"In its own way, yes.† How could I explain that the Mists Planet only came at you from the outside-it was much more difficult to be attacked from within. Attacked, Melanie scoffed. I yawned. I wasn't actually thinking of you, I told her. I was thinking of these unstable emotions, always betraying me. But you did attack me. Pushing your memories on me that way. I learned my lesson, she assured me dryly. I could feel how intensely aware she was of the hand in mine. There was an emotion slowly building in her that I didn't recognize. Something on the edge of anger, with a hint of desire and a portion of despair. Jealousy, she enlightened me. Jeb yawned again. â€Å"I'm being downright rude, I guess. You must be bushed-walking all over today and then me keepin' you up half the night talking. Ought to be a better host. C'mon, Jamie, let's go and let Wanda get some sleep.† I was exhausted. It felt as if it had been a very long day, and, from Jeb's words, perhaps that wasn't in my imagination. â€Å"Okay, Uncle Jeb.† Jamie jumped lightly to his feet and then offered his hand to the old man. â€Å"Thanks, kid.† Jeb groaned as he got up. â€Å"And thanks to you, too,† he added in my direction. â€Å"Most interesting conversation I've had in†¦ well, probably forever. Rest your voice up, Wanda, because my curiosity is a powerful thing. Ah, there he is! ‘Bout time.† Only then did I hear the sound of approaching footsteps. Automatically, I shrank against the wall and scooted farther back into the cave-room, and then felt more exposed because the moonlight was brighter inside. I was surprised that this was the first person to turn in for the night; the corridor appeared to house many. â€Å"Sorry, Jeb. I got to talking with Sharon, and then I sort of dozed off.† It was impossible not to recognize this easy, gentle voice. My stomach rolled, unstable, and I wished it were empty. â€Å"We didn't even notice, Doc,† Jeb said. â€Å"We were having the time of our lives here. Someday you'll have to get her to tell you some of her stories-great stuff. Not tonight, though. She's got to be pretty worn out, I'd bet. We'll see you in the morning.† The doctor was spreading a mat out in front of the cave entrance, just as Jared had. â€Å"Keep an eye on this,† Jeb said, laying the gun beside the mat. â€Å"Are you okay, Wanda?† Jamie asked. â€Å"You're shaking.† I hadn't realized it, but my whole body was quivering. I didn't answer him-my throat felt swollen shut. â€Å"Now, now,† Jeb said in a soothing voice. â€Å"I asked Doc if he minded taking a shift. You don't need to worry about anything. Doc's an honorable man.† The doctor smiled a sleepy smile. â€Å"I'm not going to hurt you†¦ Wanda, is it? I promise. I'll just keep watch while you sleep.† I bit my lip, and the quivering didn't stop. Jeb seemed to think everything was settled, though. â€Å"Night, Wanda. Night, Doc,† he said as he started back down the hall. Jamie hesitated, looking at me with a worried expression. â€Å"Doc's okay,† he promised in a whisper. â€Å"C'mon, boy, it's late!† Jamie hurried off after Jeb. I watched the doctor when they were gone, waiting for some change. Doc's relaxed expression didn't waver, though, and he didn't touch the gun. He stretched his long frame out on the mat, his calves and feet hanging off the end. Lying down, he looked much smaller, he was so rail thin. â€Å"Good night,† he murmured drowsily. Of course I didn't answer. I watched him in the dull moonlight, timing the rise and fall of his chest by the sound of the pulse thudding in my ears. His breathing slowed and got deeper, and then he began to quietly snore. It could have been an act, but even if it was, there wasn't much I could do about it. Silently, I crept deeper into the room, till I felt the edge of the mattress against my back. I'd promised myself that I would not disturb this place, but it probably wouldn't hurt anything if I just curled up on the foot of the bed. The floor was rough and so hard. The sound of the doctor's soft snoring was comforting; even if it was put on to calm me, at least I knew exactly where he was in the darkness. Live or die, I figured I might as well go ahead and sleep. I was dog tired, as Melanie would say. I let my eyes close. The mattress was softer than anything I'd touched since coming here. I relaxed, sinking in†¦ There was a low shuffling sound-it was inside the room with me. My eyes popped open, and I could see a shadow between the moonlit ceiling and me. Outside, the doctor's snores continued uninterrupted.

Hawaiis Volcanic Hot Spot

Hawaiis Volcanic Hot Spot Under the Hawaiian Islands, there is a volcanic â€Å"hot spot,† a hole in the Earth’s crust that allows lava to surface and layer. Over millions of years, these layers form mountains of volcanic rock that eventually break the surface of the Pacific Ocean, forming islands. As the Pacific Plate very slowly moves across the hot spot, new islands are formed. It took 80 million years to create the current chain of Hawaiian islands. Discovering the Hot Spot In 1963, John Tuzo Wilson, a Canadian geophysicist, introduced a contentious theory. He hypothesized there was a hot spot under the Hawaiian Islands - a mantle plume of concentrated geothermal heat that melted rock and rose up as magma through fractures under the Earth’s crust. At the time they were introduced, Wilson’s ideas were very controversial and many dubious geologists were not accepting theories of plate tectonics or hot spots. Some researchers thought that volcanic areas were only in the middle of plates and not at subduction zones. However, Dr. Wilson’s hot spot hypothesis helped to solidify the plate tectonics argument. He provided evidence that the Pacific Plate has been slowly drifting over a deep-seated hot spot for 70 million years, leaving behind the Hawaiian Ridge-Emperor Seamount Chain of more than 80 extinct, dormant, and active volcanoes. Wilson’s Evidence Wilson worked diligently to find evidence and tested volcanic rock samples from each volcanic island in the Hawaiian Islands. He found that the oldest weathered and eroded rocks on a geological time scale were on Kauai, the northernmost island, and that rocks on the islands were gradually younger as he went south. The youngest rocks were on the southernmost Big Island of Hawaii, which is actively erupting today. The ages of the Hawaiian Islands gradually decrease as seen in the list below: Niihau and Kauai (5.6 - 3.8 million years old).Oahu (3.4 - 2.2 million years old)Molokai (1.8 - 1.3 million years old)Maui (1.3 - 0.8 years old)Big Island of Hawaii (less than 0.7 million years old) and it is still expanding. The Pacific Plate Conveys the Hawaiian Islands Wilson’s research proved that the Pacific Plate has been moving and carrying the Hawaiian Islands northwest off the hot spot. It moves at a rate of four inches a year. The volcanoes are conveyed away from the stationary hot spot; thus, as they move farther away they become older and more eroded and their elevation decreases. Interestingly, about 47 million years ago, the path of the Pacific Plate changed direction from north to northwest. The reason for this is unknown, but it might have been because of India colliding with Asia at approximately the same time. The Hawaiian Ridge-Emperor Seamount Chain Geologists now know the ages of the undersea volcanoes of the Pacific. In the farthest northwest reaches of the chain, the underwater Emperor Seamounts (extinct volcanoes) are between 35-85 million years old and they are highly eroded. These submersed volcanoes, peaks, and islands extend 3,728 miles (6,000 kilometers) from the Loihi Seamount near the Big Island of Hawaii, all the way to the Aleutian Ridge in the northwest Pacific. The oldest seamount, Meiji, is 75-80 million years old, whereas the Hawaiian Islands are the youngest volcanoes - and a very small part of this vast chain. Right Under the Hot-Spot: Hawaii’s Big Island Volcanoes At this very moment, the Pacific Plate is moving over a localized source of heat energy, namely, the stationary hot spot, so active calderas continually flow and erupt periodically on the Big Island of Hawaii. The Big Island has five volcanoes that are connected together – Kohala, Mauna Kea, Hualalai, Mauna Loa, and Kilauea. The northwestern part of the Big Island ceased erupting 120,000 years ago, whereas Mauna Kea, the volcano in the southwest part of the Big Island erupted only 4,000 years ago. Hualalai had its last eruption in 1801. Land is continually being added to the Big Island of Hawai’i because lava that flows from its shield volcanoes is deposited on the surface. Mauna Loa, the largest volcano on Earth, is the most massive mountain in the world because it occupies an area of 19,000 cubic miles (79,195.5 cubic km). It rises 56,000 feet (17,069 m), which is 27,000 feet (8,229.6 km) higher than Mount Everest. It is also one of the world’s most active volcanoes having erupted 15 times since 1900. Its most recent eruptions were in 1975 (for one day) and in 1984 (for three weeks). It could erupt again at any time. Since Europeans arrived, Kilauea has erupted 62 times and after it erupted in 1983 it stayed active. It is the Big Island’s youngest volcano, in the shield forming stage, and it erupts from its large caldera (bowl-shaped depression) or from its rift zones (gaps or fissures). Magma from the Earth’s mantle rises to a reservoir about one-half to three miles under Kilauea’s summit, and pressure builds up in the magma reservoir. Kilauea releases sulfur dioxide from vents and craters - and lava flows onto the island and into the sea. South of Hawaii, about 21.8 mi (35 km) off the coast of the Big Island, the youngest submarine volcano, Loihi, is rising from the sea floor. It last erupted in 1996, which is very recent in geological history. It is actively venting hydrothermal fluids from its summit and rift zones. Rising up about 10,000 feet above the ocean floor to within 3,000 feet of the water surface, Loihi is in the submarine, pre-shield stage. In accordance with the hot spot theory, if it continues to grow, it might be the next Hawaiian Island in the chain. The Evolution of a Hawaiian Volcano Wilson’s findings and theories have increased knowledge about the genesis and life cycle of hot spot volcanoes and plate tectonics. This has helped to guide contemporary scientists and future exploration. It is now known, that the heat of the Hawaiian hot spot creates fluid molten rock that consists of liquefied rock, dissolved gas, crystals, and bubbles. It originates deep below the earth in the asthenosphere, which is viscous, semi-solid and pressurized with heat. There are huge tectonic plates or slabs that glide over this plastic-like asthenosphere. Due to the geothermal hot spot energy, the magma or molten rock (which is not as dense as the surrounding rocks), rises through fractures from under the crust. The magma rises and pushes its way through the tectonic plate of the lithosphere (the rigid, rocky, outer crust), and it erupts on the ocean floor to create a seamount or underwater volcanic mountain. The seamount or volcano erupts under the sea for hundreds of thousands of years and then the volcano rises above the sea level. A large amount of lava is added to the pile, making a volcanic cone that eventually sticks out above the floor of the ocean - and a new island is created. The volcano keeps growing until the Pacific Plate carries it away from the hot spot. Then the volcanic eruptions cease to erupt because there is no longer a lava supply. The extinct volcano then erodes to become an island atoll and then a coral atoll (ring shaped reef). As it continues to sink and erode, it becomes a seamount or guyot, a flat underwater tablemount, no longer seen above the water’s surface. Summary Overall, John Tuzo Wilson provided some concrete evidence and deeper insight into the geological processes above and below the surface of the Earth. His hot spot theory, derived from studies of the Hawaiian Islands, is now accepted, and it helps people understand some ever-changing elements of volcanism and plate tectonics. Hawaii’s undersea hot spot is the impetus for dynamic eruptions, leaving behind rocky remnants that continually enlarge the island chain. While older seamounts are declining, younger volcanoes are erupting, and new stretches of lava land is forming.

A Brief Overview of Taiwans National History

A Brief Overview of Taiwan's National History Located 100 miles off the coast of China, Taiwan has had a complicated history and relationship with China. Early History For thousands of years, Taiwan had been home to nine plains tribes. The island has attracted explorers for centuries that have come to mine sulfur, gold, and other natural resources. Han Chinese began crossing the Taiwan Strait during the 15th century. Then, the Spanish invaded Taiwan in 1626 and, with the help of the Ketagalan (one of the plains tribes), discovered sulfur, a main ingredient in gunpowder, in Yangmingshan, a mountain range that overlooks Taipei. After the Spanish and Dutch were forced out of Taiwan, Mainland Chinese returned in 1697 to mine sulfur after a huge fire in China destroyed 300 tons of sulfur. Prospectors looking for gold started arriving in the late Qing Dynasty after railroad workers found gold while washing their lunch boxes in the Keelung River, 45 minutes northeast of Taipei. During this age of maritime discovery, legends claimed there was a treasure island full of gold. Explorers headed to Formosa in search of gold. A rumor in 1636 that gold dust was found in today’s Pingtung in southern Taiwan led to the arrival of the Dutch in 1624. Unsuccessful at finding gold, the Dutch attacked the Spanish who were searching for gold in Keelung on Taiwan’s northeastern coast, but they still didn’t find anything. When gold was later discovered in Jinguashi, a hamlet on Taiwan’s east coast, it was a few hundred meters from where the Dutch had searched in vain. Entering the Modern Era After the Manchus  overthrew the Ming Dynasty on the Chinese mainland, the rebel Ming loyalist Koxinga retreated to Taiwan in 1662 and drove out the Dutch, establishing ethnic Chinese control over the island. Koxinga’s forces were defeated by the Manchu Qing Dynasty’s forces in 1683 and parts of Taiwan began to come under the control of the Qing empire. During this time, many aborigines retreated to the mountains where many remain to this day. During the Sino-French War (1884-1885), Chinese forces routed French troops in battles in northeastern Taiwan. In 1885, the Qing empire designated Taiwan as China’s 22nd province. The Japanese, who had had their eye on Taiwan since the late 16th century, succeeded in gaining control of the island after China was defeated in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895). When China lost the war with Japan in 1895, Taiwan was ceded to Japan as a colony and the Japanese occupied Taiwan from 1895 to 1945. After Japan’s defeat in World War II, Japan relinquished control of Taiwan and the government of the Republic of China (ROC), led by Chiang Kai-shek’s Chinese Nationalist Party (KMT), re-established Chinese control over the island. After the Chinese Communists defeated ROC government forces in the Chinese Civil War (1945-1949), the KMT-led ROC regime retreated to Taiwan and established the island as a base of operations to fight back to the Chinese mainland. The new People’s Republic of China (PRC) government on the mainland, led by Mao Zedong, began preparations to â€Å"liberate† Taiwan by military force. This began a period of Taiwan’s de facto political independence from the Chinese mainland which continues today. The Cold War Period When the Korean War broke out in 1950, the United States, seeking to prevent the further spread of communism in Asia, sent the Seventh Fleet to patrol the Taiwan Strait and deter Communist China from invading Taiwan. US military intervention forced Mao’s government to delay its plan to invade Taiwan. At the same time, with US backing, the ROC regime on Taiwan continued to hold China’s seat in the United Nations. Aid from the US and a successful land reform program helped the ROC government solidify its control over the island and modernize the economy. However, under the pretext of ongoing civil war, Chiang Kai-shek continued to suspend the ROC constitution and Taiwan remained under martial law. Chiang’s government began allowing local elections in the 1950s, but the central government remained under authoritarian one-party rule by the KMT. Chiang promised to fight back and recover the mainland and built up troops on islands off the Chinese coast still under ROC control. In 1954, an attack by Chinese Communist forces on those islands led the US to sign a Mutual Defense Treaty with Chiang’s government. When a second military crisis over the ROC-held offshore islands in 1958 led the US to the brink of war with Communist China, Washington forced Chiang Kai-shek to officially abandon his policy of fighting back to the mainland. Chiang remained committed to recovering the mainland through an anti-communist propaganda war based on Sun Yat-sen’s Three Principles of the People (ä ¸â€°Ã¦ °â€˜Ã¤ ¸ »Ã§ ¾ ©). After Chiang Kai-shek’s death in 1975, his son Chiang Ching-kuo led Taiwan through a period of political, diplomatic and economic transition and rapid economic growth. In 1972, the ROC lost its seat in the United Nations to the People’s Republic of China (PRC). In 1979, the United States switched diplomatic recognition from Taipei to Beijing and ended it military alliance with the ROC on Taiwan. That same year, the US Congress passed the Taiwan Relations Act, which commits the U.S. to help Taiwan defend itself from attack by the PRC. Meanwhile, on the Chinese mainland, the Communist Party regime in Beijing began a period of â€Å"reform and opening† after Deng Xiao-ping took power in 1978. Beijing changed its Taiwan policy from armed â€Å"liberation† to â€Å"peaceful unification† under the â€Å"one country, two systems† framework. At the same time, the PRC refused to renounce the possible use of force against Taiwan. Despite Deng’s political reforms, Chiang Ching-kuo continued a policy of â€Å"no contact, no negotiation, no compromise† toward the Communist Party regime in Beijing. The younger Chiang’s strategy for recovering the mainland focused on making Taiwan into a â€Å"model province† that would demonstrate the shortcomings of the communist system in mainland China. Through government investment in high-tech, export-oriented industries, Taiwan experienced an â€Å"economic miracle† and its economy became one of Asia’s ‘four little dragons.’ In 1987, shortly before his death, Chiang Ching-kuo lifted martial law in Taiwan, ending the 40-year suspension of the ROC constitution and allowing political liberalization to begin. In the same year, Chiang also allowed people in Taiwan to visit relatives on the mainland for the first time since the end of the Chinese Civil War. Democratization and the Unification-Independence Question Under Lee Teng-hui, the ROC’s first Taiwan-born president, Taiwan experienced a transition to democracy and a Taiwanese identity distinct from China emerged among the island’s people. Through a series of constitutional reforms, the ROC government went through a process of ‘Taiwanization.’ While officially continuing to claim sovereignty over all of China, the ROC recognized PRC control over the mainland and declared that the ROC government currently represents only the people of  Taiwan  and the ROC-controlled offshore islands of Penghu, Jinmen, and Mazu. The ban on opposition parties was lifted, allowing the pro-independence Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) to compete with the KMT in local and national elections. Internationally, the ROC recognized the PRC while campaigning for the ROC to regain its seat in the United Nations and other international organizations. In the 1990s, the ROC government maintained an official commitment to Taiwan’s eventual unification with the mainland but declared that in the current stage the PRC and ROC were independent sovereign states. The Taipei government also made democratization in mainland China a condition for future unification talks. The number of people in Taiwan who viewed themselves as â€Å"Taiwanese† rather than â€Å"Chinese† rose dramatically during the 1990s and a growing minority advocated eventual independence for the island. In 1996, Taiwan witnessed its first direct presidential election, won by incumbent president Lee Teng-hui of the KMT. Prior to the election, the PRC launched missiles into the Taiwan Strait as a warning that it would use force to prevent Taiwan’s independence from China. In response, the US sent two aircraft carriers to the area to signal its commitment to defend Taiwan from a PRC attack. In 2000, Taiwan’s government experienced its first party turnover when the candidate of the pro-independence Democratic Progressive Party (DPP),  Chen Shui-bian, won the presidential election. During the eight years of Chen’s administration, relations between Taiwan and China were very tense. Chen adopted policies that emphasized Taiwan’s de facto political independence from China, including unsuccessful campaigns to replace the 1947 ROC constitution with a new constitution and to apply for membership in the United Nations under the name Taiwan. The Communist Party regime in Beijing worried that Chen was moving Taiwan toward legal independence from China and in 2005 passed the Anti-Secession Law authorizing the use of force against Taiwan to prevent its legal separation from the mainland. Tensions across the Taiwan Strait and slow economic growth helped the KMT return to power in the 2008 presidential election, won by  Ma Ying-jeou. Ma promised to improve relations with Beijing and promote cross-Strait economic exchange while maintaining the political status. On the basis of the so-called â€Å"92 consensus,† Ma’s government held historic rounds of economic negotiations with the mainland which opened direct postal, communication and navigation links across the Taiwan Strait, established the  ECFA framework  for a cross-Strait free trade area, and opened Taiwan to tourism from mainland China. Despite this thawing in relations between Taipei and Beijing and increased economic integration across the Taiwan Strait, there has been little sign in Taiwan of increased support for political unification with the mainland. While the independence movement has lost some momentum, the vast majority of Taiwan’s citizens support a continuation of the status quo of de facto independence from China.

Product Pricing Strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Product Pricing Strategy - Essay Example Hence, it is very important that the organization should know all their costs in developing the products and in their marketing & inventory holding. Once the internal thresholds are known there are multiple additional factors that drive pricing decisions from market perspective. Monroe and Bitta (1978. pp414) presented a consolidated view of multiple models of product pricing decision classified as - new product models, product line models, price change models and price structure models. The indicated their choice for market comparisons based pricing - like related products, volumes in demands, number of discounted units, price differential with competition, etc. These factors have been empirically accepted by product strategists in pricing their products. However, the author agrees with a new theory presented more recently in 2000 by Thakur and Nair et al. (2000. pp90-92) on product pricing stating that products should be priced based on consumer preferences and not by the actual pr ices or consumer budgets. They reiterated that the products should be offered with the characteristics preferred by customers kept above thresholds and priced based on maximum welfare model such that consumers having wide variations of income can afford the product. This is particularly prevalent in automobile and consumer durables markets. Armstrong (1996. pp51-52) argued that prices should be kept variable as per customer preferences such that premium customers buying larger quantities are offered lesser prices and standard customers buying lesser quantities are offered more prices. However, it is observed that when customer preferences are combined with inventory levels, companies tend to increase prices irrespective of whether the customers are premium or standard. There are some concerns in such models that the author presents in the next section. Ethical considerations and other concerns in product pricing Ethical considerations are specifically required to be considered in monopolistic product pricing when dynamic pricing is carried out with fluctuating demands combined with inventory levels. Elmaghraby and Keskinocak (2003. pp1288-1289) discussed that, empirically, dynamic pricing has been one of the best practices in products and services due to change in customer demands (like urgent deliveries needed) or change in inventory levels (less inventory of products in more demand). This strategy is largely prevalent in service industries - like Airlines, Hotels, Transportation, etc. From the ethical perspective, the author hereby argues that dynamic pricing should not be carried out for essential commodities like food, clothes, medicines, healthcare, hospital beds, etc. Some companies increase prices substantially as soon as they witness customer orders with urgency. There are theories in operations research to maximize profits by taking urgent supply orders from customers at premium pri ces (example, Levin & Ma. 2004. pp217). While it may be a good practice to service customers with urgent

Presidental and Parliamentary Systems of Government Term Paper

Presidental and Parliamentary Systems of Government - Term Paper Example Finally, conclusions were arrived at. The presidential separation of powers is not typical of modern constitutionalism. As such, there are several constitutional democracies that depict the commingling of governmental powers. Most of these systems of government are parliamentary systems. Such systems exhibit reliance of the head of government on the legislature for political survival. Another important trait exhibited by such governments is the power of the executive to declare elections by bringing about dissolution of the legislature.1 In the presidential systems of government, such powers are rarely encountered. These systems uphold the principle of separation of powers. The latter provides a governmental branch with the power to oversee the actions of the other branches, which generates a system of governance based on mutual distrust between the various branches of the government. Such invasive overlap among government branches ensures that no specific branch of government obtain s absolute power.2 In the US, delegation of power is quite strong, and society is politically active to a considerable extent, and there is extraordinary support from all quarters to the principle of democracy. Thus, the US represents a strong presidential system of government that differs from the Westminster model of democracy. The latter supports parliamentary democracy.3 The presidential system of the US establishes a strong President in the White House, who acts as the head of the state. In the Westminster model, the Prime Minister holds the position of pre-eminence. Despite these differences, both models focus on the concentration of power in the political party that has control over the legislature. In some democratic countries of Latin America, power is concentrated in the hands of a single person or party. Examples of such regimes are to be found in Venezuela, Colombia, and Costa Rica. 4 In the presidential systems of Greece and France, the President is elected by the peopl e and power is concentrated in the office of the President. These systems are known as delegate democracies. 5 The presidential system of government frequently includes a bicameral legislature. The passage of any law requires control over the executive, and the upper and lower houses of the legislature. These three entities are not elected at the same time and in the same election, which drastically increases the scope for dissent. 6 Parliamentary democracy is characterized by comparatively better stability. However, development in a country results in people aspiring for greater freedom with regard to expressing dissent. In addition, there is a greater tendency to spread different viewpoints. In the UK these desires have led to a gradual transition of the system of government towards the presidential system. 7 In fact, there is little of the original Westminster model that pertains to the political system prevalent in the UK. It is now quite apparent that the parliamentary system w ith its stability and authoritarian norms is apt only as far as the developing nations are concerned. With growth among the populace of a nation, it becomes essential to adopt a system of government that replicates a presidential system of governance. 8 The President in a presidential system of governance appoints the members of the Cabinet. In general, the latter are not members of the